All these factors have to be evaluated across the life cycle, along metrics such as climate impact, ecotoxicity and recyclability, using tools such as a life cycle assessment (LCA) to elucidate the environmental benefit over alternatives6,12,13. Commun. Briassoulis, D., Hiskakis, M. & Babou, E. Technical specifications for mechanical recycling of agricultural plastic waste. Biochem. Polyols that are naturally found in some fruits and vegetables are used for the synthesis of bio-based polyurethanes (bioPUs). Chem. [2] ErgebnisberichtUmfrage [German]. Labet, M. & Thielemans, W. Synthesis of polycaprolactone: a review. Around two million tonnes of plastic debris leach into rivers each year, occurring in both developing countries, which lack adequate collection and waste treatment infrastructures, and industrialized nations, such as China and the USA22,23,24. 5, 501516 (2020). Biodegrad. Chem. Wear and tear of tyres: a stealthy source of microplastics in the environment. Activities span the plastic life cycle, from selective plastic bans and easily understandable labelling to helping consumers participate in waste management and financial incentives for renewable resources and chemical recycling16,39. Several bans on single-use plastic were temporarily reverted, reusable shopping bags were banned and, in some places, traditionally recyclable plastic food containers were considered hazardous, owing to potential pathogenic contamination40. Review of lignin conversion into useful chemicals. Sci. Rokicki, G., Parzuchowski, P. G. & Mazurek, M. Non-isocyanate polyurethanes: synthesis, properties, and applications. Similarly, oxo-degradation (that is, decomposition by oxidation) can be triggered by metals; however, this can lead to fragmentation into microplastics and insufficient digestion. Progress and challenges in producing polyhydroxyalkanoate biopolymers from cyanobacteria. Proc. 48, 1377613784 (2014). LCA is the main tool but requires homogenization of methodology standards to make LCAs more transparent, consistent and comparable. Environ. Kunasundari, B. 35, 16671676 (2016). 3, 2529 (2017). Koller, M. Biodegradable and biocompatible polyhydroxy-alkanoates (PHA): auspicious microbial macromolecules for pharmaceutical and therapeutic applications. Bio-based PE-like materials with a low density of ester and carbonate bonds in the polymer backbone that serve as breaking points have been fabricated through the polycondensation of bio-based difunctional oligoethylene monomers. Sci. Bioplastics are plastics that are either made from renewable resources (bio-based), are biodegradable, are made through biological processes or a combination of these. Environ. 2012, 2017).Bio-based /partially bio-based plastics include bio-based drop-in PE and PP, polyethylene terephthalate (PET), and technical performance bio-based polymers, such as polytrimethylene terephthalate (PTT) or Thermoplastic polyester elastomers (TPC . 54, 889910 (2002). Globally, PET bottle-to-bottle recycling was at only 7% before 2016 (refs2,193); the rest was downcycled into PET fibres (72%), sheets (10%) and tape (5%), which are generally non-recyclable19,194. Cellulose, the most abundant natural polymer, can be extracted from plant biomass or specific cellulose-producing bacteria and processed into food-packaging materials or used as a nano-filler additive with other bioplastics to improve barrier properties and the tensile strength of food packaging165,166. Each bioplastic feedstock has its own set of challenges. Not so biodegradable: Polylactic acid and cellulose/plastic blend textiles lack fast biodegradation in marine waters. Closing the loop for paper-coated packaging and serviceware: now compostable and recyclable with Luminy from Total Corbion PLA. 601602, 11921207 (2017). & Garca, J. Chafran, L. S. et al. Annual plastic production is >380 million tonnes and increasing at an annual rate of 4%; consequently, 6,300 million tonnes of plastic waste have been generated since 1950 (refs3,4). PEF plastic synthesized from industrial carbon dioxide and biowaste. (Photos by Christopher DelRe) The new process involves embedding polyester-eating enzymes in the plastic as it's made. Austin, H. P. et al. 9, 2701 (2018). Abts, G., Eckel, T. & Wehrmann, R. in Ullmanns Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry (Wiley, 2014). A tax on non-recycled plastic of 800 per tonne was implemented in 2021 to motivate manufacturing industries to adopt alternative recyclable, reusable or compostable materials242. United Nations Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO). Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs) are biosynthesized in microorganisms from various feedstocks106,110,121,235. Schmidt, C., Krauth, T. & Wagner, S. Export of plastic debris by rivers into the sea. Total Environ. 47, 852908 (2018). Macromolecules 25, 13771381 (1992). Educating consumers and companies towards life cycle thinking will encourage a holistic view on plastic products beyond their obvious impacts associated with the use and disposal of plastics. Google Scholar. The Identity of Oxo-Degradable Plastics and their Use in Switzerland (Federal Office for the Environment (FOEN), 2020). 307, 123093 (2020). Polyesters and other O-bearing, N-bearing and S-bearing polymers emit GHGs, such as CO, CO2, NOx and SOx, whereas halogenated polymers, such as PVC, produce HCl gas and chlorobenzene. Pellis, A. et al. Sustain. Various carbon-rich feedstocks can be used for cultivation, including inexpensive food residues and liquefied plastic wastes, highlighting the usefulness of the biological PHA production process in enabling circularity112,113,114. Explanation of life cycle assessment approaches and sensitivity analysis of (bio)plastic-related environmental impacts in different end-of-life scenarios, showing recycling to be more sustainable than landfilling and composting. 16, 950963 (2014). Life cycle impact assessment of bio-based plastics from sugarcane ethanol. Rahimi, A. 3, 19241928 (2006). PubMedGoogle Scholar. The overall capacity of this form of recycling is, however, very limited: globally, ~10% of PET and high-density PE is recycled, whereas for polystyrene and PP, the numbers are closer to zero. 6, 3982339832 (2016). Usmani, Z. et al. The line of Terratek Flex the market's first biodegradable elastomer bioplastics is a good example of a biodegradable plastic which is not fully bio-based. Recycl. She tried more than 100 combinations, drawing insight and motivation from the global bioplastic community, where scientists share ideas and formulas freely for the greater good. Shen, L., Worrell, E. & Patel, M. K. Open-loop recycling: A LCA case study of PET bottle-to-fibre recycling. Nat. Green Chem. 46, 68556871 (2017). Phycol. One issue is the production of potentially toxic gases, as a result of the (often unknown) additives, that require appropriate capturing. It is used in agricultural mulch films, which can degrade in soil over a period of >9 months111,148. Open-ended Working Group of the Basel Convention. Polym. Jarerat, A., Tokiwa, Y. Eng. in Ullmanns Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry 129 (Wiley, 2016). 12, 539554 (2010). Leakage of plastic into the environment is a central issue of inappropriate EOL management3,22. For single-use plastics, the working life, from use to disposal, can be as short as a few minutes. However, heterogeneity in LCA approaches and assumptions persist6,172,173. Despite its large financial market share in the biomedical sector, the production volumes of polyglycolic acid are negligible from a commodity standpoint151,152. Recycl. Polymers with non-functional backbones such as polyolefins (including polyethylene (PE), bio-based PE, polypropylene (PP) and polystyrene) are better suited for cracking into hydrocarbon oil and gas by thermolysis and can then follow a similar upcycling path58,199,200,260. Coady, D., Parry, I., Le, N.-P. & Shang, B. CAS Yang, J., Yang, Y., Wu, W., Zhao, J. This approach allows CO2 from air to be sequestered in a polymer, until its ultimate release through incineration or composting. & Langer, R. Polyanhydrides. Environ. Woodruff, M. A. Russell, J. R. et al. New research, led by the Scripps Institution of Oceanography in San Diego, California, has . Shelf Life 25, 100538 (2020). Using renewable raw materials (top), biorefineries upgrade first-generation and second-generation biomass (that is, edible plant products and non-edible biowastes, respectively) into the same building blocks as those derived from petroleum, as well as others64,70,93. https://www.european-bioplastics.org/bioplastics/standards/labels/, How2Recycle: Plastic & climate. A Polym. Increased plastic pollution due to COVID-19 pandemic: challenges and recommendations. Strategies for reducing the climate impact of the plastics industry, considering bioplastics, renewable energy, recycling and reduced demand. Low oil prices, narrow profit margins and existing fossil-fuel subsidies reduce the cost-competitiveness of bio-based manufacturers, which represent a fragmented market of small entities and subdivisions of petrochemical companies. Owing to the cost-competitiveness of established plastic industry practices and linear business models, the implementation of these measures requires not only technological progress but also economic investment and financial incentives created by legislators16,21. Venkata Mohan, S., Modestra, J. Panel j courtesy of the Biodegradable Products Institute. Introduction Plastics are a universal part of the modern economy due to their unique functional properties at low-cost. Tech. Mismanaged and leaky landfills are considered a major source of environmental pollution. https://bpiworld.org/Value-Of-Certification, Danimer Scientifics PHA: Similarly, TV Austria has developed further labels and certification procedures for different environments in which plastics may end up (panels ln of the figure). Biden Harris. One goal is a recycling target of 50% for plastic packaging by 2030. in Plastics from Bacteria: Natural Functions and Applications 121132 (Springer, 2010). Fourteenth Meeting of the Conference of the Parties to the Basel Convention Meeting Documents 1123 (United Nations, 2019). Medeiros Garcia Alcntara, J. et al. Controlled anaerobic digestion (which occurs in the absence of O2) in a methanization biogas facility produces CH4 from biodegradable polymer waste. Textiles and fibre products are also rarely recycled3. Chen, G.-Q. However, Ideonella sakaiensis 201-F6, a bacterium that was discovered in a Japanese recycling site, can depolymerize PET at ambient temperatures within 40 days201. Am. Control. Science Advice for Policy by European Academies (SAPEA). In 2019, 187 UN member nations amended the directives of the 1989 Basel Convention on global hazardous materials shipping and trade to include plastic waste, adding new transparency and regulatory requirements27. JCPRA https://www.jcpra.or.jp/Portals/0/resource/eng/JCPRAdocuments202012.pdf (2020). What are bioplastics? In many countries, landfills are still the dominant waste disposal option: in the USA, 58% of waste ends up in landfills (2014)3, and in Europe, it is 27.3% (2017)182. 54, 13531370 (2014). Environ. Cellulose is biodegradable167, yet regenerated cellulose, which is popular as viscose or rayon textile fibres, constitutes 60% of sea-bed microplastics31. Ward, P. G., Goff, M., Donner, M., Kaminsky, W. & OConnor, K. E. A two step chemo-biotechnological conversion of polystyrene to a biodegradable thermoplastic. Compared with polyesters, polyurethanes are much less biodegradable, owing to the strength of the urethane bonds. Deposit-refund systems and EPR schemes can increase return and collection rates for post-consumer plastics and increase the quality of the plastic collected187. As such, the material properties of PBS are more similar to those of polyolefins, namely, a low glass transition temperature and a high elongation at break (>500%). Depending on type, bioplastics can offer improved circularity by using renewable (non-fossil) resources, a lower carbon footprint, biodegradation as an alternative end-of-life (EOL) option and improved material properties. Sci. Nat. & Williams, C. K. Adding value to power station captured CO2: tolerant Zn and Mg homogeneous catalysts for polycarbonate polyol production. & Hall, P. From waste plastics to industrial raw materials: a life cycle assessment of mechanical plastic recycling practice based on a real-world case study. Huang, Z. et al. Technavio. MacArthur, D. E. Beyond plastic waste. When partially bio-based PUs and polyamide copolymers are included, worldwide production was ~7.5 million tonnes in 2018 and is expected to reach 9.1 million tonnes in 2023, with market capitalizations of $1.1 billion and $1.7 billion, respectively4. Biotechnol. Archer Daniels Midland wrote off its $339 million investment and Metabolix sold the technology to CheilJedang (South Korea) and rebranded into Yield10 Bioscience to shift its focus to crop research. The most abundant polysaccharides in brown algae are alginates, which comprise up to 40% of their dry weight. Regarding bioplastics, the EU is developing a regulatory framework to determine which applications are appropriate for them, with the goal of preventing false sustainability claims (that is, greenwashing) by companies.
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